The findings come from a report titled "The Conspiracy Paradox: On Fear of Others, the Need for a Strong State and Susceptibility to Disinformation Narratives," presented in Warsaw on Monday by the NASK National Research Institute, Poland’s state cybersecurity and digital research body.
The study, based on surveys of internet users in Poland, challenges several common assumptions about who is most vulnerable to conspiracy theories. It found that place of residence, level of education and gender had little effect on susceptibility to such narratives.
NASK experts advised people to check information in reliable sources, trust science, remain self-critical and pay attention to emotionally charged messages. They also said people should ask whether someone may benefit from making them think in a particular way.
“If we imagine that conspiracy theories do not affect us because we are from a big city and educated, that is not true. They affect us to the same extent,” said Agnieszka Ładna, head of NASK’s cyber and cybersecurity research team.
The report found that factual knowledge and the ability to verify information mattered more than formal education. Respondents who gave more correct answers in a knowledge test were more resistant to conspiracy narratives.
The findings also contradict the belief that older people are the easiest group to mislead.
According to the report, older respondents showed the strongest resistance to conspiracy thinking, while young adults, especially those aged 30 to 39 and 18 to 29, were less resistant.
NASK researchers said worldview was a key factor. Xenophobia was the strongest predictor of belief in conspiracy theories.
Ładna said this fear increased the likelihood of believing that elites, institutions or states were secretly controlling events.
Radical political views also mattered, regardless of whether they were on the right or the left. People with moderate views and a willingness to seek compromise were the most resistant.
'Conspiracy paradox'
The report also identified what NASK called Poland’s “conspiracy paradox.” It combines culturally right-wing attitudes, including xenophobia, with economically left-wing expectations that the state should protect citizens and intervene in public, private and economic life.
Filip Konopczyński, director of NASK’s analysis and research office, said the Polish pattern stood out because people drawn to conspiracy thinking often feared outsiders and hidden threats, but still wanted strong public institutions to act on their behalf.
Media habits were another factor. The report found that using many different types of media did not automatically make people more resistant to disinformation. Those who relied on mainstream media, including major news portals, television, radio and the press, showed greater resistance.
Social media, especially platforms based on short videos selected by algorithms, was linked to higher vulnerability. Users of text-based and relationship-based services were more resistant.
The researchers said conspiracy beliefs rarely appear in isolation. People who accept one conspiracy narrative are often more likely to accept others.
The report draws on nationwide online surveys carried out in 2024 and 2025. The first covered 3,600 people aged over 15. The second was narrowed to 1,000 adult respondents.
(rt/gs)
Source: PAP